hMENA isoforms regulate cancer intrinsic type I IFN signaling and extrinsic mechanisms of resistance to immune checkpoint blockade in NSCLC.

BACKGROUND: Understanding how cancer signaling pathways promote an immunosuppressive program which sustains acquired or primary resistance to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) is a crucial step in improving immunotherapy efficacy. Among the pathways that can affect ICB response is the interferon (IFN) pathway that may be both detrimental and beneficial. The immune sensor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) induces IFN activation and secretion and is activated by actin cytoskeleton disturbance. The actin cytoskeleton regulatory protein hMENA, along with its isoforms, is a key signaling hub in different solid tumors, and recently its role as a regulator of transcription of genes encoding immunomodulatory secretory proteins has been proposed. When hMENA is expressed in tumor cells with low levels of the epithelial specific hMENA11a isoform, identifies non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with poor prognosis. Aim was to identify cancer intrinsic and extrinsic pathways regulated by hMENA11a downregulation as determinants of ICB response in NSCLC. Here, we present a potential novel mechanism of ICB resistance driven by hMENA11a downregulation. METHODS: Effects of hMENA11a downregulation were tested by RNA-Seq, ATAC-Seq, flow cytometry and biochemical assays. ICB-treated patient tumor tissues were profiled by Nanostring IO 360 Panel enriched with hMENA custom probes. OAK and POPLAR datasets were used to validate our discovery cohort. RESULTS: Transcriptomic and biochemical analyses demonstrated that the depletion of hMENA11a induces IFN pathway activation, the production of different inflammatory mediators including IFNß via RIG-I, sustains the increase of tumor PD-L1 levels and activates a paracrine loop between tumor cells and a unique macrophage subset favoring an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Notably, when we translated our results in a clinical setting of NSCLC ICB-treated patients, transcriptomic analysis revealed that low expression of hMENA11a, high expression of IFN target genes and high macrophage score identify patients resistant to ICB therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these data establish a new function for the actin cytoskeleton regulator hMENA11a in modulating cancer cell intrinsic type I IFN signaling and extrinsic mechanisms that promote protumoral macrophages and favor EMT. These data highlight the role of actin cytoskeleton disturbance in activating immune suppressive pathways that may be involved in resistance to ICB in NSCLC.

The long non-coding RNA NEAT1 is a ΔNp63 target gene modulating epidermal differentiation.

The transcription factor ΔNp63 regulates epithelial stem cell function and maintains the integrity of stratified epithelial tissues by acting as transcriptional repressor or activator towards a distinct subset of protein-coding genes and microRNAs. However, our knowledge of the functional link between ∆Np63 transcriptional activity and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) expression is quite limited. Here, we show that in proliferating human keratinocytes ∆Np63 represses the expression of the lncRNA NEAT1 by recruiting the histone deacetylase HDAC1 to the proximal promoter of NEAT1 genomic locus. Upon induction of differentiation, ∆Np63 down-regulation is associated by a marked increase of NEAT1 RNA levels, resulting in an increased assembly of paraspeckles foci both in vitro and in human skin tissues. RNA-seq analysis associated with global DNA binding profile (ChIRP-seq) revealed that NEAT1 associates with the promoter of key epithelial transcription factors sustaining their expression during epidermal differentiation. These molecular events might explain the inability of NEAT1-depleted keratinocytes to undergo the proper formation of epidermal layers. Collectively, these data uncover the lncRNA NEAT1 as an additional player of the intricate network orchestrating epidermal morphogenesis.

AATF/Che-1 localizes to paraspeckles and suppresses R-loops accumulation and interferon activation in Multiple Myeloma.

Several kinds of stress promote the formation of three-stranded RNA:DNA hybrids called R-loops. Insufficient clearance of these structures promotes genomic instability and DNA damage, which ultimately contribute to the establishment of cancer phenotypes. Paraspeckle assemblies participate in R-loop resolution and preserve genome stability, however, the main determinants of this mechanism are still unknown. This study finds that in Multiple Myeloma (MM), AATF/Che-1 (Che-1), an RNA-binding protein fundamental to transcription regulation, interacts with paraspeckles via the lncRNA NEAT1_2 (NEAT1) and directly localizes on R-loops. We systematically show that depletion of Che-1 produces a marked accumulation of RNA:DNA hybrids. We provide evidence that such failure to resolve R-loops causes sustained activation of a systemic inflammatory response characterized by an interferon (IFN) gene expression signature. Furthermore, elevated levels of R-loops and of mRNA for paraspeckle genes in patient cells are linearly correlated with Multiple Myeloma progression. Moreover, increased interferon gene expression signature in patients is associated with markedly poor prognosis. Taken together, our study indicates that Che-1/NEAT1 cooperation prevents excessive inflammatory signaling in Multiple Myeloma by facilitating the clearance of R-loops. Further studies on different cancer types are needed to test if this mechanism is ubiquitously conserved and fundamental for cell homeostasis.

Type I IFNs promote cancer cell stemness by triggering the epigenetic regulator KDM1B.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of cancer cells endowed with high tumorigenic, chemoresistant and metastatic potential. Nongenetic mechanisms of acquired resistance are increasingly being discovered, but molecular insights into the evolutionary process of CSCs are limited. Here, we show that type I interferons (IFNs-I) function as molecular hubs of resistance during immunogenic chemotherapy, triggering the epigenetic regulator demethylase 1B (KDM1B) to promote an adaptive, yet reversible, transcriptional rewiring of cancer cells towards stemness and immune escape. Accordingly, KDM1B inhibition prevents the appearance of IFN-I-induced CSCs, both in vitro and in vivo. Notably, IFN-I-induced CSCs are heterogeneous in terms of multidrug resistance, plasticity, invasiveness and immunogenicity. Moreover, in breast cancer (BC) patients receiving anthracycline-based chemotherapy, KDM1B positively correlated with CSC signatures. Our study identifies an IFN-I → KDM1B axis as a potent engine of cancer cell reprogramming, supporting KDM1B targeting as an attractive adjunctive to immunogenic drugs to prevent CSC expansion and increase the long-term benefit of therapy.

Dissecting the Epigenome Driving Drug Resistance by ATAC-Seq.

The transcription of each gene is tightly regulated by elements like promoters, enhancers, silencers and insulators. These elements determine the temporal and tissue-specific expression in development and disease. Drug resistance is the major obstacle in successfully treating cancer patients. In the recent years, it became evident that epigenetic changes represent one of the mechanisms that contribute to the onset and progression of cancer but also to the development of therapy resistance. The assay for transposase-accessible chromatin coupled with next generation sequencing (ATAC-seq) is a fast and easy technique to track epigenetic changes that result in different opening of the chromatin in regulatory regions genome-wide. The transposase cuts DNA in regions that are open and therefore accessible for transcription factors, regulatory RNAs and proteins that alter the architectural structure of the DNA and drive or inhibit transcription through the RNA polymerase. Here we describe a detailed protocol to perform an ATAC-seq of cells from culture or tissue.

KEAP1 and TP53 Frame Genomic, Evolutionary, and Immunologic Subtypes of Lung Adenocarcinoma With Different Sensitivity to Immunotherapy.

INTRODUCTION: The connection between driver mutations and the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors is the focus of intense investigations. In lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), KEAP1/STK11 alterations have been tied to immunoresistance. Nevertheless, the heterogeneity characterizing immunotherapy efficacy suggests the contribution of still unappreciated events. METHODS: Somatic interaction analysis of top-ranking mutant genes in LUAD was carried out in the American Association for Cancer Research (AACR) Project Genomics Evidence Neoplasia Information Exchange (GENIE) (N = 6208). Mutational processes, intratumor heterogeneity, evolutionary trajectories, immunologic features, and cancer-associated signatures were investigated, exploiting multiple data sets (AACR GENIE, The Cancer Genome Atlas [TCGA], TRAcking Cancer Evolution through therapy [Rx]). The impact of the proposed subtyping on survival outcomes was assessed in two independent cohorts of immune checkpoint inhibitor-treated patients: the tissue-based sequencing cohort (Rome/Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center/Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, tissue-based next-generation sequencing [NGS] cohort, N = 343) and the blood-based sequencing cohort (OAK/POPLAR trials, blood-based NGS cohort, N = 304). RESULTS: Observing the neutral interaction between KEAP1 and TP53, KEAP1/TP53-based subtypes were dissected at the molecular and clinical levels. KEAP1 single-mutant (KEAP1 SM) and KEAP1/TP53 double-mutant (KEAP1/TP53 DM) LUAD share a transcriptomic profile characterized by the overexpression of AKR genes, which are under the control of a productive superenhancer with NEF2L2-binding signals. Nevertheless, KEAP1 SM and KEAP1/TP53 DM tumors differ by mutational repertoire, degree of intratumor heterogeneity, evolutionary trajectories, pathway-level signatures, and immune microenvironment composition. In both cohorts (blood-based NGS and tissue-based NGS), KEAP1 SM tumors had the shortest survival; the KEAP1/TP53 DM subgroup had an intermediate prognosis matching that of pure TP53 LUAD, whereas the longest survival was noticed in the double wild-type group. CONCLUSIONS: Our data provide a framework for genomically-informed immunotherapy, highlighting the importance of multimodal data integration to achieve a clinically exploitable taxonomy.

Che-1/AATF-induced transcriptionally active chromatin promotes cell proliferation in multiple myeloma.

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a hematologic malignancy produced by a clonal expansion of plasma cells and characterized by abnormal production and secretion of monoclonal antibodies. This pathology exhibits an enormous heterogeneity resulting not only from genetic alterations but also from several epigenetic dysregulations. Here we provide evidence that Che-1/AATF (Che-1), an interactor of RNA polymerase II, promotes MM proliferation by affecting chromatin structure and sustaining global gene expression. We found that Che-1 depletion leads to a reduction of "active chromatin" by inducing a global decrease of histone acetylation. In this context, Che-1 directly interacts with histones and displaces histone deacetylase class I members from them. Strikingly, transgenic mice expressing human Che-1 in plasma cells develop MM with clinical features resembling those observed in the human disease. Finally, Che-1 downregulation decreases BRD4 chromatin accumulation to further sensitize MM cells to bromodomain and external domain inhibitors. These findings identify Che-1 as a promising target for MM therapy, alone or in combination with bromodomain and external domain inhibitors.

Small extracellular vesicles deliver miR-21 and miR-217 as pro-senescence effectors to endothelial cells.

The role of epigenetics in endothelial cell senescence is a cutting-edge topic in ageing research. However, little is known of the relative contribution to pro-senescence signal propagation provided by microRNAs shuttled by extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from senescent cells. Analysis of microRNA and DNA methylation profiles in non-senescent (control) and senescent (SEN) human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), and microRNA profiling of their cognate small EVs (sEVs) and large EVs demonstrated that SEN cells released a significantly greater sEV number than control cells. sEVs were enriched in miR-21-5p and miR-217, which target DNMT1 and SIRT1. Treatment of control cells with SEN sEVs induced a miR-21/miR-217-related impairment of DNMT1-SIRT1 expression, the reduction of proliferation markers, the acquisition of a senescent phenotype and a partial demethylation of the locus encoding for miR-21. MicroRNA profiling of sEVs from plasma of healthy subjects aged 40-100 years showed an inverse U-shaped age-related trend for miR-21-5p, consistent with senescence-associated biomarker profiles. Our findings suggest that miR-21-5p/miR-217 carried by SEN sEVs spread pro-senescence signals, affecting DNA methylation and cell replication.

Eleven grand challenges in single-cell data science.

The recent boom in microfluidics and combinatorial indexing strategies, combined with low sequencing costs, has empowered single-cell sequencing technology. Thousands-or even millions-of cells analyzed in a single experiment amount to a data revolution in single-cell biology and pose unique data science problems. Here, we outline eleven challenges that will be central to bringing this emerging field of single-cell data science forward. For each challenge, we highlight motivating research questions, review prior work, and formulate open problems. This compendium is for established researchers, newcomers, and students alike, highlighting interesting and rewarding problems for the coming years.

GeDi: applying suffix arrays to increase the repertoire of detectable SNVs in tumour genomes.

BACKGROUND: Current popular variant calling pipelines rely on the mapping coordinates of each input read to a reference genome in order to detect variants. Since reads deriving from variant loci that diverge in sequence substantially from the reference are often assigned incorrect mapping coordinates, variant calling pipelines that rely on mapping coordinates can exhibit reduced sensitivity. RESULTS: In this work we present GeDi, a suffix array-based somatic single nucleotide variant (SNV) calling algorithm that does not rely on read mapping coordinates to detect SNVs and is therefore capable of reference-free and mapping-free SNV detection. GeDi executes with practical runtime and memory resource requirements, is capable of SNV detection at very low allele frequency (<1%), and detects SNVs with high sensitivity at complex variant loci, dramatically outperforming MuTect, a well-established pipeline. CONCLUSION: By designing novel suffix-array based SNV calling methods, we have developed a practical SNV calling software, GeDi, that can characterise SNVs at complex variant loci and at low allele frequency thus increasing the repertoire of detectable SNVs in tumour genomes. We expect GeDi to find use cases in targeted-deep sequencing analysis, and to serve as a replacement and improvement over previous suffix-array based SNV calling methods.

B4GALT1 Is a New Candidate to Maintain the Stemness of Lung Cancer Stem Cells.

BACKGROUND: According to the cancer stem cells (CSCs) hypothesis, a population of cancer cells with stem cell properties is responsible for tumor propagation, drug resistance, and disease recurrence. Study of the mechanisms responsible for lung CSCs propagation is expected to provide better understanding of cancer biology and new opportunities for therapy. METHODS: The Lung Adenocarcinoma (LUAD) NCI-H460 cell line was grown either as 2D or as 3D cultures. Transcriptomic and genome-wide chromatin accessibility studies of 2D vs. 3D cultures were carried out using RNA-sequencing and Assay for Transposase Accessible Chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq), respectively. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was also carried out on RNA extracted from primary cultures derived from malignant pleural effusions to validate RNA-seq results. RESULTS: RNA-seq and ATAC-seq data disentangled transcriptional and genome accessibility variability of 3D vs. 2D cultures in NCI-H460 cells. The examination of genomic landscape of genes upregulated in 3D vs. 2D cultures led to the identification of 2D cultures led to the identification of Beta-1,4-galactosyltranferase 1 (B4GALT1) as the top candidate. B4GALT1 as the top candidate. B4GALT1 was validated as a stemness factor, since its silencing caused strong inhibition of 3D spheroid formation. CONCLUSION: Combined transcriptomic and chromatin accessibility study of 3D vs. 2D LUAD cultures led to the identification of B4GALT1 as a new factor involved in the propagation and maintenance of LUAD CSCs.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals multi-step adaptations to endocrine therapy.

Resistant tumours are thought to arise from the action of Darwinian selection on genetically heterogenous cancer cell populations. However, simple clonal selection is inadequate to describe the late relapses often characterising luminal breast cancers treated with endocrine therapy (ET), suggesting a more complex interplay between genetic and non-genetic factors. Here, we dissect the contributions of clonal genetic diversity and transcriptional plasticity during the early and late phases of ET at single-cell resolution. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing and imaging we disentangle the transcriptional variability of plastic cells and define a rare subpopulation of pre-adapted (PA) cells which undergoes further transcriptomic reprogramming and copy number changes to acquire full resistance. We find evidence for sub-clonal expression of a PA signature in primary tumours and for dominant expression in clustered circulating tumour cells. We propose a multi-step model for ET resistance development and advocate the use of stage-specific biomarkers.

Enhancer mapping uncovers phenotypic heterogeneity and evolution in patients with luminal breast cancer.

The degree of intrinsic and interpatient phenotypic heterogeneity and its role in tumor evolution is poorly understood. Phenotypic drifts can be transmitted via inheritable transcriptional programs. Cell-type specific transcription is maintained through the activation of epigenetically defined regulatory regions including promoters and enhancers. Here we have annotated the epigenome of 47 primary and metastatic estrogen-receptor (ERα)-positive breast cancer clinical specimens and inferred phenotypic heterogeneity from the regulatory landscape, identifying key regulatory elements commonly shared across patients. Shared regions contain a unique set of regulatory information including the motif for transcription factor YY1. We identify YY1 as a critical determinant of ERα transcriptional activity promoting tumor growth in most luminal patients. YY1 also contributes to the expression of genes mediating resistance to endocrine treatment. Finally, we used H3K27ac levels at active enhancer elements as a surrogate of intra-tumor phenotypic heterogeneity to track the expansion and contraction of phenotypic subpopulations throughout breast cancer progression. By tracking the clonality of SLC9A3R1-positive cells, a bona fide YY1-ERα-regulated gene, we show that endocrine therapies select for phenotypic clones under-represented at diagnosis. Collectively, our data show that epigenetic mechanisms significantly contribute to phenotypic heterogeneity and evolution in systemically treated breast cancer patients.

Extensive and systematic rewiring of histone post-translational modifications in cancer model systems.

Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) generate a complex combinatorial code that regulates gene expression and nuclear functions, and whose deregulation has been documented in different types of cancers. Therefore, the availability of relevant culture models that can be manipulated and that retain the epigenetic features of the tissue of origin is absolutely crucial for studying the epigenetic mechanisms underlying cancer and testing epigenetic drugs. In this study, we took advantage of quantitative mass spectrometry to comprehensively profile histone PTMs in patient tumor tissues, primary cultures and cell lines from three representative tumor models, breast cancer, glioblastoma and ovarian cancer, revealing an extensive and systematic rewiring of histone marks in cell culture conditions, which includes a decrease of H3K27me2/me3, H3K79me1/me2 and H3K9ac/K14ac, and an increase of H3K36me1/me2. While some changes occur in short-term primary cultures, most of them are instead time-dependent and appear only in long-term cultures. Remarkably, such changes mostly revert in cell line- and primary cell-derived in vivo xenograft models. Taken together, these results support the use of xenografts as the most representative models of in vivo epigenetic processes, suggesting caution when using cultured cells, in particular cell lines and long-term primary cultures, for epigenetic investigations.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and High-Throughput Sequencing (ChIP-Seq): Tips and Tricks Regarding the Laboratory Protocol and Initial Downstream Data Analysis.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) has become an essential tool for epigenetic scientists. ChIP-seq is used to map protein-DNA interactions and epigenetic marks such as histone modifications at the genome-wide level. Here we describe a complete ChIP-seq laboratory protocol (tailored toward processing tissue samples as well as cell lines) and the bioinformatic pipelines utilized for handling raw sequencing files through to peak calling.

Acquired CYP19A1 amplification is an early specific mechanism of aromatase inhibitor resistance in ERα metastatic breast cancer.

Tumor evolution is shaped by many variables, potentially involving external selective pressures induced by therapies. After surgery, patients with estrogen receptor (ERα)-positive breast cancer are treated with adjuvant endocrine therapy, including selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and/or aromatase inhibitors (AIs). However, more than 20% of patients relapse within 10 years and eventually progress to incurable metastatic disease. Here we demonstrate that the choice of therapy has a fundamental influence on the genetic landscape of relapsed diseases. We found that 21.5% of AI-treated, relapsed patients had acquired CYP19A1 (encoding aromatase) amplification (CYP19A1amp). Relapsed patients also developed numerous mutations targeting key breast cancer-associated genes, including ESR1 and CYP19A1. Notably, CYP19A1amp cells also emerged in vitro, but only in AI-resistant models. CYP19A1 amplification caused increased aromatase activity and estrogen-independent ERα binding to target genes, resulting in CYP19A1amp cells showing decreased sensitivity to AI treatment. These data suggest that AI treatment itself selects for acquired CYP19A1amp and promotes local autocrine estrogen signaling in AI-resistant metastatic patients.

Large-scale profiling of signalling pathways reveals an asthma specific signature in bronchial smooth muscle cells.

BACKGROUND: Bronchial smooth muscle (BSM) cells from asthmatic patients maintain in vitro a distinct hyper-reactive ("primed") phenotype, characterized by increased release of pro-inflammatory factors and mediators, as well as hyperplasia and/or hypertrophy. This "primed" phenotype helps to understand pathogenesis of asthma, as changes in BSM function are essential for manifestation of allergic and inflammatory responses and airway wall remodelling. OBJECTIVE: To identify signalling pathways in cultured primary BSMs of asthma patients and non-asthmatic subjects by genome wide profiling of differentially expressed mRNAs and activated intracellular signalling pathways (ISPs). METHODS: Transcriptome profiling by cap-analysis-of-gene-expression (CAGE), which permits selection of preferentially capped mRNAs most likely to be translated into proteins, was performed in human BSM cells from asthmatic (n=8) and non-asthmatic (n=6) subjects and OncoFinder tool were then exploited for identification of ISP deregulations. RESULTS: CAGE revealed >600 RNAs differentially expressed in asthma vs control cells (p≤0.005), with asthma samples showing a high degree of similarity among them. Comprehensive ISP activation analysis revealed that among 269 pathways analysed, 145 (p<0.05) or 103 (p<0.01) are differentially active in asthma, with profiles that clearly characterize BSM cells of asthmatic individuals. Notably, we identified 7 clusters of coherently acting pathways functionally related to the disease, with ISPs down-regulated in asthma mostly targeting cell death-promoting pathways and up-regulated ones affecting cell growth and proliferation, inflammatory response, control of smooth muscle contraction and hypoxia-related signalization. CONCLUSIONS: These first-time results can now be exploited toward development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting ISP signatures linked to asthma pathophysiology.